Managing Spiritual Employees - Spirituality in the Workplace

           This week I have been thinking about spirituality in the workplace because I feel that religion and/or spirituality has no place in society, except in a church setting.   I feel that personal opinion on matter of politics and religion should be kept private and no one should preach to others about their beliefs, least of all at work; however I respect all belief systems.  I believe that there is a time and place for religion/spirituality and that company time should be spent on company matters. However, if people want to place religious artifacts (tastefully) on their desks, or if they wish to pray at lunch time on their own time, I do not see an issue with that at all because, after all, I would appreciate other people respecting my beliefs.  Also, because after reading and doing some research on the subject, it seems that people tend to be more creative and productive when they are allowed personal freedoms at work and more and more people are enjoying spirituality at work.  According to the text on page 361, “workplace spirituality is increasingly becoming a fundamental part of the quality of work life experienced by organizational members” (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2008).  So, is the workplace spirituality movement a good thing or a bad thing for all of those involved?  Also, is this kind of workplace change going to help companies long or short term?    

            Many people confuse religion with spirituality and link their spirituality to a specific religion.  The reason I am against the workplace spirituality movement is because I feel that if religion-based spirituality is allowed on company time, this could be an issue due to the fact that there are so many different types of religions in the world, and the workplace is very diverse.  Just from the top of my head I can count 20 different religions, plus many religions have a different sect. Companies would have to cater to all or allow all religions and not just one, which could take considerable time, depending on the size of the workplace.  Also, religion and spirituality being what it is (everyone believes their way is the correct way), it could also cause discrimination in the workplace among employees; after all, religion-based spirituality tends to create discrimination worldwide.  According to Audra Lowe from Better TV, “charges of religious discrimination in the workplace have exploded in the past decade, rising faster than any other form of discrimination complaints” (2010).    

          Audra Lowe asks, was this “a good idea gone bad, or just poor execution?” (2010).   Margie Warrell (Better TV, 2010), author of Find Your Courage states that the workplace is a great place to talk and discuss spirituality because of the time spent on the job.  Warrell also states that companies are not pushing a religious agenda by allowing employees to be spiritual at work.  Spirituality has not been in the workplace for many years and now we have the workplace spirituality movement (change in the organizational atmosphere).  According to the text on page 360, “historically, the human spirit – with its hopes, dreams, and aspirations – has largely been excluded from the workplace” (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2008).  However, with this new movement, spirituality in the workplace is getting more and more attention as the years slide by.      

Contrasts / an alternative view to the insight:

            So researching on the topic, I felt that the information only supported my previous beliefs about the workplace spirituality movement which was that it hurts more than it helps and it is not good for companies short or long term.  These beliefs are biased and very subjective; therefore I did more research on the matter and it seems that the text was correct in stating that “people must be able to express their values and share their hopes if they are to fully tap into their creative potential” and “the role of spirituality in the workplace has begun to take on increased prominence” (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2008, p. 360).   I also agree with Warrell (Better TV, 2008) that if there is no religious agenda within organizations, that spirituality in the workplace should not be an issue; also if people choose to be spiritual then let them, and if not, then don’t bother those people with your beliefs – much like how people should behave outside of a work atmosphere.    

            Now about organizational change; this movement is creating change to organizations and many companies have adopted this spirituality movement.  In order for this change to occur seamlessly, there are some things that need to be addressed.  That is because organizational change does not happen overnight, nor does it always take with the employees in the organization.  According to Kotter (1995), organizational change will not happen if the change is not anchored to the organization’s culture.  That is to say that if the organization accepts the workplace spirituality movement, but does not support it as an organization or does not show that the organization itself is open-minded and spiritual, then it will not work.   Kotter (1995) states under error #8, “change sticks when it becomes ‘the way we do things around here,’ when it seeps into the bloodstream of the corporate body.  Until new behaviors are rooted in social norms and shared values, they are subject to degradation as soon as the pressure for change is removed” (p. 67).  So, the workplace spirituality movement could be a great thing for employees and organizations if discrimination is not an issue, if it truly opens up creativeness of the employees, and if the organization supports the change as a whole. 

What does anyone else think about the workplace spirituality movement?  Is it a good thing, or a bad thing?  Should religion be grouped in with spirituality?  Is the spirituality moving through someone’s workplace now?  If so, how is it affecting the organization or other employees?   

 References:

Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. (2008). Chapter 11:Organization Development and Change. A Primer on Organizational Behavior (7th ed., p.360-361). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Kotter, J. P. (1995, 4). Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved December 4, 2012, from http://hbr.org/2007/01/leading-change-why-transformation-efforts-fail/ar/1

Lowe, A. (2010). Spirituality in the Workplace.  Retrieved December 3, 2012, from http://on.aol.com/video/spirituality-in-the-workplace-258155260

Management: Affirmative Action and Diversity Training

In Favor of Diversity Training:

“Here is not merely a nation but a teeming Nation of nations.” “Here the flowing trains, here the crowds, equality, diversity, the soul loves” (Whitman & Beach, 2012).  

 The United States is a land full of diverse people – we are not a nation of just one race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, etc…  The only thing most of the people of America actually have in common is that our ancestors all traveled here by way of the ocean.  Diversity is around everyone of us constantly; especially in the workplace.  I am from a small town called Farmington Missouri and even in this very small town I have friends of all colors, nationalities, sexual orientation, both male and female, of all ages, and religions.  It is because of this diversity among people that there is a large need for effective diversity training in the workplace.  I say effective diversity training here, because the training needs to be done properly and needs to be taught by an instructor who actually understands how to teach the program based on research/tools that have been proven to assist employees in the training process.   If a manager is simply going through the motions and just doing what is required of them to get people through a training program, then chances are that the program is not going to be as effective as it would be if a proper instructor was doing the training.

Some people cannot rely on parental guidance, legal reprimand, or even social cues to learn how to be tolerant and respectful of others.  From what I have personally witnessed myself, some people enjoy being rude and ignorant when it comes to other people who are different than they are (even if they know it’s wrong to admit aloud that they are prejudice).   Ignorance fuels discrimination and inhibits diversity.  However, ignorance is a curable affliction - "Teaching leads to understanding, understanding leads to tolerance, tolerance leads to diversity, diversity leads to acceptance and acceptance leads to peace” (Fang, 2005).  This is why diversity training is necessary in the workforce.  The information regarding diversity needs to be given to people; after all, would a little education hurt anyone?  Even if a person is extremely tolerant, diversity training would simply be a reinforcement tool.  It is my experience when re-learning something, I always learn something new.  

The overall goals of diversity training are to “minimize discrimination and harassment lawsuits” and to improve “acceptance and understanding of people with different backgrounds, experiences, capabilities, and lifestyles” (Mathis & Jackson, 2009).  However, giving information to people is simply not enough.  People must embrace the idea behind the information; “Research has shown that it is only when people take diversity personally that they are able to turn it into a practice at work” (Gilliard, 2008).  Therefore, the concept of tolerance and acceptance must also be integrated into an effective diversity training program in addition to the basic information of diversity in the workplace and the person/employee needs to be a willing participant in the training program.  Managers truly need to be able to provide effective diversity programs for their employees in an attempt to educate them on the diverse nature of the workplace.  Diversity is prevalent in the workplace and a good program to teach diversity is essential to the harmony of a diverse set of employees. “Diversity is a reality for employers today, and effective diversity management is crucial to HR management” (Mathis & Jackson, 2009).

As a side note, and something to ponder – diversity leads to synergy; new ideas from a diverse background of people.  The introduction and mixing of cultures, languages, technology and much more comes from the fact that the world is diverse and people do have the ability to communicate effectively with those who are different than themselves (the Internet, and globalization are examples).  Now, my question is, how would the world be if all people remained in their own little groups of all-white, all-black, all-Asian, all-gay, all-straight, all-Christian, all-Muslim, all-female, all-male groups?  How would the workplace be different if it was like this?  How would it be better or worse?  Would there be as much discovery and innovation in the world?  These types of questions are important to me because I feel as a human race, these trivial issues of skin color and other genetic assignments should not be considered whatsoever. And for those who are not sure how to treat fellow humankind in the workplace (or the world for that matter), effective diversity training is a step in the right direction.

  

References:

Fang, S. (2005, Jul 12). Ignorance, terrorism go hand in hand. The Atlanta Journal - Constitution, pp. 13-A.13. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/337201135?accountid=38003

Gilliard, J. P. (2008). Diversity training: A study of the impact of diversity training on organizational performance, financial results and accountability. Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304815214?accountid=38003. (304815214).

Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2009). Equal Employment/Diversity. Human resource management essential perspectives (5th ed., p. 56,57). Australia: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Whitman, W., & Beach, J. M. (2012). Book XXIII. Walt Whitman: Leaves of grass (the complete1891-92 edition) (p. 241). Austin, TX: Createspace. (Original work published 1892)

Against Affirmative Action: 

This word alone does not sit well with many people when thinking about Affirmative Action.   The purpose of Affirmative Action is to include minorities who would otherwise not be included in the workplace due to possible discrimination.  “Through Affirmative Action, employers are urged to hire groups of people based on their race, age, gender, or national origin to make up for historical discrimination” (Mathis & Jackson, 2009). 

Does Affirmative Action cause Reverse Discrimination, polarization, resentment, and separatism among employees:

Many Americans feel that Affirmative Action is a form of reverse discrimination; that if they are a white male, they have fewer opportunities in the workplace.  A testing technician in Gilbert, Arizona, Joseph Ruhnke, stated “It just makes me upset when this subject gets thrown down your throat. I'm a white single male and they try to make you feel guilty because they're not getting jobs and that it's our fault. It's not my fault that somebody can't get a job.” (Morin & Warden, 1995).  When employees are upset in the workplace and feel they are discriminated against but have no real outlet to protect them such as the minorities, I can see where there can be polarization, resentment, and separatism.  It would seem that Affirmative Action reinforces separatism not with skin color, race, or religion, but by grouping minorities against the majority which is the white male.  Some people in the minority group see things just a little differently than Joseph Ruhnke. Graig Gillis, age 25, stated, “There should be some type of reparations for 300 to 400 to 500 years of discrimination of all types of minorities, not just blacks” (Morin & Warden, 1995).  But there already has been justice for the inequalities against women, African American, Native Indian, and more minorities in the United States.  When is enough, enough?  No wonder there is some resentment, polarization, separatism, and feelings of reverse discrimination in the workplace.  Even with laws and policies in place, the NAACP, all-black movie channels, etc... Some people still want more and believe just due to their skin color they are owed more.   This sense of entitlement from a white person, black person, Asian person, gay person, or any person in general creates resentment in other people.  Dan Oswald states regarding the Declaration of Independence: “Nowhere in there does it say we are entitled to respect or to be treated a certain way. And expecting those things, having a sense of entitlement, causes bitterness and resentment.” (Oswald, 2012).   One of the key points outlined in the text states “Affirmative Action creates more equality for all persons, even if temporary injustice to some individuals may result” (Mathis & Jackson, 2009).  And the debate is before us under this section because “Affirmative Action penalizes individuals (males and whites) even though they have not been guilty of discrimination” (Mathis & Jackson, 2009). Since Affirmative Action is based on equality and fairness, does this seem truly fair?

Though quotas are illegal in the United States, do the goals of organizations sometimes become quotas when hiring minorities:   

According to the text, “Goals become quotas by forcing employers to ‘play by the numbers’”. (Mathis & Jackson, 2009).   The Supreme Court ruled on June 28, 1978 through the Bakke decision (formerly The University of California Regents v. Bakke) that quotas were unconstitutional.  Allan Bakke, a white male, applied for medical school and was denied even when minority students were admitted to the program that had lower scores/admission requirements - “applicants were admitted under the special program with grade point averages, MCAT scores, and benchmark scores significantly lower than Bakke's.” (UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS 1978).  The argument for Bakke fell under The Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act which states: “No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance”. (Title VI, 1986).   Even though quotas are illegal due to precedence now in the United States, another point is to be made from this case:  Why an executive order now when there are other protections granted through precedence and The Equal Protection Clause and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that clearly protects anyone, not just minorities, from discrimination under the law?      

Do the minorities being hired actually want the charity of Affirmative Action (case in point: white women):  

A story: 

As a white female, I do not feel the need for Affirmative Action.  I feel that my gender has not had an effect on my grades, my life, my personal or professional circumstances and quite frankly the only time I do get offended is when I am referred to as “the weaker sex” or a “minority” because I have good self-esteem. I do not appreciate the labels, nor do I need the labels in order to succeed in life.  I had never been discriminated against due to my race, gender, age, or sexual orientation until I was hired for the purpose of having a woman on an all-white, all-male sales team at an organization when I was 19 years old (I was actually told that is why I was being hired by my boss at the time).  I was not qualified as much as other applicants and I found this out later, but I was 19, I had a daughter to support and I was not going to turn down a job.  I performed the job well, however the men at the job were upset and angry that their boss hired a woman for the position “just because” and because of the fact that I had no official training for the job.  They left pictures of naked women on my desk, they called me derogatory names referring to my sexual orientation (they thought I was gay for some reason), and having been a new mother, they would often call me at my desk and pretend to be advocates from the Division of Child Services claiming I was being investigated.  A couple of the salesmen even exposed themselves to me.  Could I have sued on so many different levels of injustice here?  Certainly.  Did I? No.  I didn’t because I did not want or need anyone’s pity.  Instead I made a plan.  I took all of their sales by simply being a better salesperson; I then called the main office and reported my sales for the previous two months because my sales were not being sent in for some reason before.  I was given “Employee of the Month” for my last two months of work and the owner of the organization came down to Cape Girardeau from St. Louis to personally thank me and take me out to dinner for a job well done.  After proving that I could not only do the job better as an untrained salesperson, I quit citing my reasons as “personal” and in the letter I stated that I was “proud to be the only salesperson in the history of the organization to have achieved 242 sales in only 45 days after only being hired for 4 months”. 

Sure, I felt horrible and what they did was not only wrong, it was illegal in many ways, but I did not need pity or a push.  I feel that perseverance in the face of diversity, tolerance in the face of ignorance, and gaining respect of peers through hard work is what is truly important.  One year later, I re-applied to the organization after all of the people who previously worked there were fired or left for their own reasons.  I worked there for another 6 months and maintained very high sales records (I left because I had to move to a different city).  I was not hired again because I was a woman, I was hired because I had more sales experience than the former applicants (and I made sure of it this time).  This experience taught me a lot about diversity as well as the workplace environment, but most of all it taught me how not to hate or be resentful toward people just because a handful of those types of people were ignorant.  In other words, I do not feel that society owes me anything; I feel that I owe my society something. I am not alone in the feelings of other people labeled the same way in our society as a minority.  “Two out of three women opposed affirmative action preference programs for women, compared to three out of four men.” (Morin & Warden, 1995).  Maybe in the 1960’s and 1970’s Affirmative Action was the most helpful but I feel that it has worn out its welcome. “Few white women think themselves beneficiaries of affirmative action, and most are simply not open to the idea that they have been; few if any expect it to help them in the future; and most share the same concerns as white men regarding "reverse discrimination," or the perceived hiring of unqualified minorities.” (Wise, 1998). 

Side note ** On the case for both diversity training and Affirmative Action, one clear constant keeps arising – that is the level of education and qualifications of people after K-12 school.  I have run into countless articles providing direct links between quality of education, intelligence, pay scale, and tolerance.  I read complaints regarding a level playing field for all races but the ground is only truly level when there are equal qualifications. Perhaps the problem really isn’t with the types of diversity training, or the “temporary injustices” of Affirmative Action; however perhaps the problem rests with the quality of education for our children in the United States?      

References:

Mathis, R. L., & Jackson, J. H. (2009). Equal Employment/Diversity. Human resource management essential perspectives (5th ed., p. 57,58). Australia: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Morin, R., & Warden, S. (1995, March 24). Washingtonpost.com: AMERICANS VENT ANGER AT AFFIRMATIVE ACTION. Washington Post: Breaking News, World, US, DC News & Analysis. Retrieved September 9, 2012, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/politics/special/affirm/stories/aa032495.htm

Oswald, D. (2012, March 2). Dangers of a Sense of Entitlement | The Oswald Letter by Dan Oswald. Hr Hero Blogs. Retrieved September 9, 2012, from http://blogs.hrhero.com/oswaldletters/2012/03/02/dangers-of-a-sense-of-entitlement/

Title VI, Civil Rights Act of 1964. (1986, October 21). OASAM. United States Department of Labor. Retrieved September 9, 2012, from http://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/titlevi.htm

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA REGENTS v. BAKKE, 438 U.S. 265 (1978). Retrieved from http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=438&invol=265

Wise, T. (1998). Is sisterhood conditional: White women and the rollback of affirmative action. NWSA Journal, 10(3), 1-26. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/233240063?accountid=38003

Management - Internal and External Environments

I owned a business for over 10 years and with owning the business I noticed that I could create (or better yet, control) the internal environment but also that the external environment influenced my company greatly – much more so than I could control.  Everything I controlled within my business was a response in one way or another to the dynamic external environment.  As an example, I could choose to carry specific product lines, where to ship, what relationship to create, build, or discard, and whether or not I wanted to be more customer-centric.  There were many variables that I could experiment with to create more profits; however, I could not control many things.  Consumer demand, new government policies or recalls on baby items, government fees, prices offered by my competitors, new entrants into the industry, and customer issues with product shortages (supply) were all uncontrollable aspects of the external environment and all of these aspects affected the way I did business, internally.

Expanding on the issue of an organization creating its environment is relatively complex because it largely depends on the type of organization.  For instance, Weick mentioned in his article that Polaroid was able to create a situation where the stock was “less attractive to hold” and ultimately satisfied a “self-fulfilling prophecy” (Weick, 2001).   Weick stated through examples that banks, actors, and physicians can also create their environments through investor size and contribution, improvisation in theater, and type 2 errors when diagnosing patients.  Essentially when a company is creating its environment, it is creating a situation where the environment is conducive to growth and their structure is not necessarily attached to the demands of the external environment.  My argument is this:  How can a company truly believe they are creating their own environment when they are creating/controlling the environment in response to ultimate consumer or other demand?  I mean, the entire existence of the organization is for the purpose of helping others, creating profit, other otherwise dealing with other people in general.  I can understand how creation of the environment can be seen in the examples that Weick provided, but people bailing out on stock? Doctors diagnosing patients incorrectly get more business; and improvisational actors having fun?  I agree that these organizations are being more proactive than reactive to their specific environments; however the situations in these examples are not necessarily contributing to the growth of business (monetarily or otherwise).  My main concern here is do companies create the environment because they want to or because they need to (response mechanism to externalities)?  I feel that Weick’s article is very interesting and is a good read; however I feel that the examples have narrow scope and are not exactly indicative of the majority of organizations.  That is to say for instance that I hope doctors are not creating type 2 errors with the majority of their patients.  I feel that organizations evolve and adapt to changes in the external environment, but also try to control as much as possible, even if most of that creation or control is sometimes impossible and/or solely internal.  As stated in the text on page 274, “It is important to realize that while organizations can learn and adapt to their environment, they also, to varying degrees, attempt to change and control their environment” (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2007).     

Expanding on the issue of external environments influencing organizations is also complex, because, again, it largely depends on the type of organization to what degree the external environment has on the organization.  All organizations are affected by the general external environment which is discussed by Dr. Olga Chapa from the University of Houston-Victoria as “the economic, technological, sociocultural, and political trends that affect all organizations” (Uhv.edu, 2010).  In my company, I constantly had to change, or evolve, to the ever pressing demands from consumers.  I had to pay very close attention to recalls from the government, watch for new entrants into the industry, and constantly benchmarked competitor’s pricing and programs.  I could control the environment of the organization when it came to internal policies, which products to carry, and overall organizational climate. However, I could not control the external environment; instead I had to respond to it in order to survive in the industry.  For instance when customers were complaining about certain aspects of customer service, I had to change some of the corporate culture to respond to the demands.  As stated in the text, “organizations are open systems that are influenced by a multitude of environmental forces” (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2007).   I completely agree with this statement, furthermore I believe that even though organizations try to create or control their environment they also are influenced by the environment and that an open system is a better choice for most organizations today due to the dynamic nature of the environment itself.   I feel this way because of consumer demands, economic issues, political conditions, rapid change in technology, and various other dynamic external conditions need to be responded to by an organization. It is this response that ultimately shapes the strategy the business uses.   The organization needs to be sensitive to the changes and respond appropriately and quickly to those external changes in order to succeed.  According to the Encyclopedia of Business Reference for Business online, “research during the 1960s showed that traditional bureaucratic organizations generally failed to succeed in environments where technologies or markets were rapidly changing. They also failed to realize the importance of regional cultural influences in motivating workers” (Referenceforbusiness.com, 2011).  I feel that organizations simply cannot afford not to be open systems due to the current market and consumer interests / demands.  But organizations still need to implement control of their organizational environment in response to the needs and pressures of the external environment. 

Weick takes the position that organizations mainly create their environments.  “Organizations are more active in constructing the environments that impinge on them than is commonly recognized” (Weick, 2001).  Weick believes that organizations create their environments and also have varying degrees of control over these environments once they are built.  Weick also states that “as an organization increases in size it becomes more and more its own selection system and finally quite literally does impose the environment that imposes on it”.   So, essentially Weick is stating that organizations build their own environments, and then eventually have to control the other aspects of environment once it is imposed onto the organization.  “Organizations have to build their environment before they can even have the luxury of controlling them” (Weick, 2001).  This statement says it all – Weick’s view is that an organization does not automatically know the environment because it has yet to be built and once it is built then the organization can worry about controlling it.  And that the only thing that is truly known is what a person has already done or what they are thinking.  Weick is concerned with the definitions of boundaries that are defined by other people.  He sees the definitions of these boundaries as non-existent and problematic.   Weick stated that “an organization can never know what it thinks or wants until it sees what it does” (Weick, 2001).   I understood this as an organization can offer a good or service to consumers and based on the consumers, then the organization can see what it wants and what it thinks about a situation.  Organizations will have to respond, evolve, and/or adapt to the external environment, especially in the case of a bad product or service being offered.  I wonder how Weick would reconcile advocacy groups, economic recessions, and new laws that are passed which affect business as usual.  Would Weick state that these were all conditions because the organizations made them so?   I can see Weick’s point, but I do not agree with it.  For instance, if I started a company again selling any type of product retail, I would have to exam the external environment first.  The external environment has a huge impact on what I can sell in this economy.  Then as new laws are passed, I would have to adhere to those laws; I would have to constantly adjust business due to the changing external environment.  I mean, bell-bottom pants and polyester white leisure suits were cool back in the day, but would they sell now?  Making adjustments due to the external environment is the evolution of an organization.

Personal thoughts:

Weick used three examples, which were described above in answer number 1, and states that the banks, physicians, and actors influence their environment instead of the environment influencing them.  At what point does an organization cross ethical lines when attempting to influence their environment?   Also, Weick dives deep into his article discussing environments as a psychological thing (he does have a Ph.D. in organizational psychology after all).  So, I have another question:  Are many organizations really solipsistic in nature?

Cognition & Sensemaking

Karl Weick’s article provided a link between cognition and the environment.  I took away a lot from this because I absolutely adore psychology and enjoy reading theories and various articles on the subject, especially regarding cognition and reality.  I felt that the entire take away from this article was to understand how a person (or organization) can justify their thoughts, rationalize their ideas and enact these emotions through sensemaking thus creating their environment.  According to Dr. Weick, “sensemaking fills important gaps in organizational theory.” And “The seemingly transient nature of sensemaking belies its central role in the determination of human behavior, whether people are acting in formal organizations or elsewhere” (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005).  Even though I have an opposing view on the some of Weick’s views (but I plan to read a lot more of his articles), I can understand what Dr. Weick and his colleagues were conveying –that people or organizations gather thoughts and ideas, put them in order (organize them) and enact these thoughts back to the environment in order to make their environments more logical overall.  And this is why I took this part out of the reading and enjoyed it the most – order out of chaos.  It seems it is a human need to create, control, project their feelings, and try to make sense of their environment, always, even if there really is no connection. When people are faced with ambiguity and uncertainty “people search for meaning” and “settle for plausibility then move on” (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005). Connecting abstract thoughts to concrete actions, creating an environment, and looking back in retrospect is the cornerstone of sensemaking.  For instance, when I ran my business I would often think, plan, do, and look back at the decisions I made and altered what I needed to in order to control my environment.  However, I learned very fast that in my industry if my decisions did not work out as planned that it was mainly due to outside influences such as demand and supply; conversely, if my internal plans did work, it was because they were in harmony with the external environment.  If the demand did not run high or low and remained stable, then my actions would have been to do nothing; it was because of the flux in demand and supply that started a reaction in my business to alter prices and to order more or less goods in a period.  The decisions I did make created the environment that produced more profit. So perhaps Weick is correct, perhaps I made the decisions, thereby creating the environment and found myself inside my own creation.

References:

Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. (2008). Organization-Environment Relations.A primer on organizational behavior (7th ed., pp. 252, 274). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Weick, K.E. (2001). In Weick, K.E. (ed.), Making Sense of the Organization:179-206, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Referenceforbusiness.com. (2012). Organization Theory - Open-systems theory, Basic organizational characteristics, Organizational theory in the 1980s and 1990s. Reference For Business - Encyclopedia of Small Business, Business Biographies, Business Plans, and Encyclopedia of American Industries. Retrieved August 28, 2012, from http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Op-Qu/Organization-Theory.html.

Uhv.com. (2010). Chapter 3 Summary. University of Houston - Victoria: Academic Web. Retrieved August 29, 2012, from http://www2.uhv.edu/chapao/MGT3311/outlines/chp3.htm 

Weick, K., Sutcliffe, K., & Obstfeld, D. (2005). Organizing and the process of sensemaking. (4 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 409-421). Organization Science

Management vs Leadership

I feel that  both management and leadership are different in a literal sense and by definition although they can both exist simultaneously.  As an example, a manager is appointed or hired to a position but could also be a leader (that is to say that leadership is just one facet of management) and, conversely, a leader may be a leader with or without holding the title of manager.  Also, I feel that both terms are in the title of this class because leading is becoming more and more popular in management.  According to David K. Williams, a contributing writer for Forbes magazine online, "What if a company simply dispensed with traditional managers? What if every employee had the opportunity and potential to lead? What if everyone was given the freedom to consider “Am I doing the right things?” instead of just “Am I doing things ‘right’?”".  This is important because companies of the future may consider dispensing formal management and focus more on direct leadership due to the distinction leadership holds for employees (Williams, 2012).  Perhaps this idea from David K. Williams has a lot of merit and is directly linked to the Hypercaninophobia complex (aka top-dog fear) which is “fear caused in superiors when an inferior demonstrates strong leadership potential” (Peter & Hull, 1969).   It does make logical sense that if a manager is also a leader, then the subordinates will follow the manager instead of a leader born from a group. 

There is a fundamental difference between the two terms; however many people use the terms interchangeably both correctly and well as incorrectly.  The definitions are not confusing but the practical applications can be and this is why the terms are used interchangeably - sometimes justified, and sometimes not so much.  The term management is defined by Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary as "the conducting or supervising of something (such as a business)", and the term leadership is defined by the same source as the "capacity to lead".  So does this mean that anyone who is a manager is automatically also a leader or has the capacity to lead?  The answer is no, and this is because not every manager has this capacity, and not every leader has the title of manager.  Furthermore not every manager wants the distinction of being a leader.  The only time a person is justified in using the terms interchangeably is when the definition of the term(s) fit(s) the situation correctly.  As an example I would like to point out that a leader such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. did not hold a management position; and I have personally had managers in fast food environments that just controlled situations, but they never gave any type of advice or other direction to employees other than what was mandated by the franchise.  Managers are also not always required by an organization to be a leader due to the structure of the organization, so leadership can also be considered an asset that a manager holds instead of a necessity.  Therefore, the terms can only be used interchangeably when a person holds the title of manager and also has the capacity as well as the objective to lead.   Management and (or) leadership is often contingent upon the structure and overall purpose of the organization.   

My Philosophy on Management and Leadership: 

In management, managers do things according to policy, company rules, and generally by the book.  Managers form teams, control situations, organize meetings, staff employees, and plan various activities that are all aimed at reaching the overall goal of the company.   Managers are viewed by employees as being authoritative - a person that the employees must directly obey and carefully listen to whether or not they actually want to.   A manager is hired to a specific position and therefore a manager is more of a title rather than a label.   I feel that managers think critically about situations and try to stay within the parameters of company guidelines.   To me, managing a situation means getting into chaos and straightening up a mess in order to meet a goal or set of goals and a manager is a ruling authority whereas a leader is someone to follow willingly due to their views, characteristics, enthusiasm, and passion.

In leadership, leaders think more radically than managers; they challenge norms, unite people to follow, use emotions to excite followers, and set examples through their leadership.   Leaders are normally not bound entirely by organizational rules or structure and understand when, as well as how, to challenge the status quo.   Leaders may not have the expertise of a company or organization like that of managers, but are able to gain more employee loyalty.  Loyalty, I feel, is a key difference between a leader and a manager.  People in general tend to feel more loyal to a leader than to a manager and I feel this is because they are not ordered to follow a leader; people actually want to follow a leader due to the leader’s message, fervor, and direction.  

Leaders are able to establish loyalty through trust building and by creating enthusiasm in their followers.    My favorite example of a great leader is Queen Elizabeth I – she was not called the “manager of England”, and I believe this is a good way to show the difference between the two terms (perspective).    To me, leading is setting an example by actions, through emotions, and creating trust and loyalty among followers.  If I want to teach my children about science, I show them how fun science can be and tell them stories of how science has changed my life and how it is beneficial to them; if I want to lead a group in class, I show the members that I have the capacity to contribute to the group and that their ideas and opinions are extremely important to the success of the group; if I want to lead my employees I take action, treat them with respect, get to know them on a personal level, trust them as I want to be trusted, and lead by example.  As a note, in all of these situations, proper and well-timed feedback is always very important as a leader and a manager. 

There certainly is a distinction between the terms management and leadership; both terms can apply to a person if the standards mentioned above for both terms are present.

Younger Years - Noticing the Differences:

As a teenager I worked at McDonalds for 2 years.  During this time I was strictly managed and not led.  I knew what I had to do, my goals for the day, and how to carry out these goals.  My managers rarely spoke to me unless they had to give e some type of directions or orders for work.  Later, I decided to open my own business and through much trial and error I learned that managing people in this same fashion under a completely different business structure was simply not going to work.   I was only doing what I knew at the time, and was managing people, not leading a group.  I learned promptly that different people respond to different incentives in very different ways.  Being managed before at McDonalds taught me that things needed to be done in order to be profitable but it did not teach me that leading people motivates them to work harder and to be loyal to the company.  This is probably why McDonalds has an incredibly high turnover rate – as there is not much loyalty there due to the management style.   For my business I needed people who had general and specific knowledge, who enjoyed coming into work, and who were loyal to my company.  It was because of the uneager response of my 15 employees that I knew I would have to be both a manager as well as a leader.  I decided I needed lessons on leadership and did not have time to go back to college to learn these lessons, yet.   So I purchased books upon books just to learn leadership ability.  Books are great, but nothing teaches leadership like that of a true leader.   I looked in various places, sought out mentors, and the evolution of my thoughts on leadership became more and more of what not to do as a leader than what to do.  But that is also good, for knowing ‘what not to do’ relinquishes the possibility of errors when leading in the future. 

My thoughts of leadership at this point were focused on motivating other people.  I needed my employees to want to come to work and I wanted to see smiles.   My thoughts of leadership were quiet antiquated too; for instance during this time I truly believed that people were either born leaders or born followers and that they could never change their status.  After more trial and error and going at this leadership all wrong, I found out one day that leadership truly comes not through words but through actions.  I could talk all day to my employees but it was about as well received as a preacher spilling out words on Sunday to kids who simply thought they were going to church for fun due to parental lies.   It was the day when my company received a huge order from a very high-class institution.  The order was 200 crib sets packaged and delivered within 24 hours.  We were short handed because seven employees decided to leave when we got the huge order in.  I told my other employees thank you for staying, and I immediately began to work.  Without much instruction from me, my other employees also immediately began to work.  But then a very interesting thing happened – they were laughing, having fun, and one of them said “we can get this done in no time” and the other employees agreed.  It was then that I realized only when there was a challenging goal and I rolled up my sleeves to join them, that they were the most eager.   I was no longer just a manager preaching orders from my soapbox, but rather I was leading them by my actions.  When I took action with a positive attitude, there was a clear domino effect in the employees.  We got the order finished with 4 hours to spare, and we all went out to celebrate on my dime.  After that day, things went very well in the office; my employees started asking my advice with everything from work to personal life situations.  The seven employees who showed no loyalty were fired, and the other employees were given a raise due to the new availability of funds from the firings.   My employees trusted me and were loyal to me based on my actions.  This was a very important milestone for me.

More lessons came throughout the years, but my business closed in 2009 due to economic hardship.  I decided then to go back to school and I have learned so very much from Southeast Missouri State University regarding leadership and management – and surprisingly it has been mostly from the way the classes are taught, what the professor(s) expect from students, how well professors communicate, and then the actual material of the classes in this order.   In one class, for instance, the professor laid out the syllabus and wrote an email which said “you can do the assignments as you wish.  The due dates are posted.”  I emailed the professor 4 times during the 16-week course, only once was I responded to with “that information is in the syllabus.”   This professor certainly managed the course well through a very organized syllabus, but there was no leadership, and quite frankly I did not even want to take the course anymore because of the lack of enthusiasm I felt for it.  If the professor wasn’t excited about teaching it, why should I be excited to learn it?  Conversely, the class I took on leadership through SEMO by Dr. Erin Fluegge was amazing.  She was such an active part in that class, she made the class a lot of fun, and I got the feeling that she was very happy to teach her students.  She managed and led her class very well – all emails were immediately responded to and in such a positive way.  These differences between classes show only a small picture of management and leadership, or the lack thereof.  Outside of the classroom these principles are the same and I have learned that some people prefer to just manage and show no passion, but others are full of passion and have the capacity to lead.   My perspective on both leadership and management has evolved greatly throughout the years.  This evolution has taken place mainly due to trial and error, through formal studies, and through not-so-formal studies in what not to do as a leader.  I am excited and happy to say that my perspective still has room to grow, and continually does so through more education on leadership and management. 

References:

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10. ed.). (1999). Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster.

Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). Followers & Leaders. The Peter Principle, (p. 171). New York: W. Morrow.

Williams, D. K. (2012, July 5). No More Managers. Everyone Leads - Forbes. Information for the World's Business Leaders - Forbes.com. Retrieved August 22, 2012, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidkwilliams/2012/07/05/no-more-managers-everyone-leads/

Understanding Globalization for Managers

What is Globalization?

            Globalization refers to the alliance of the global economic order amalgamating through the reduction of international trade barriers such as import and export fees, trade embargoes, quotas and other tariffs.  The overall goal of globalization is to simply increase the wealth of nations on a global scale.  The means in which this can be accomplished is through policies, specialization, competition, and international relations.  Globalization is often described as the way regions, nations, people, societies, cultures, and economies have been connected through trade, communications, direct investments, migration, military presence, technology, and transportation.  Globalization can also mean the integration of popular culture (i.e. movies, art, and literature), sociocultural events, languages, and even ideas.  Once one culture, which is considered “advanced”, shares knowledge with another less advanced culture, the less advanced culture is then said to be globalized.  

            The term globalization is generally used to explain a flow of goods, ideas, and culture between nations; it does have a series of advantages as well as disadvantages which must be considered when sharing goods, services, and even information with other nations.  There are many aspects of globalization that must be taken into account, such as: industrial, political, financial, language, economic, informational, ecological, technical, ecological (regarding a nation’s resources), and religious.  Globalization is an extremely important topic to understand in today’s society and this paper is a breakdown of the most important economic aspects and effects regarding the issues and how they affect the United States.

The Globalization Effect

            In the United States of America, globalization is not a new issue.  We, as Americans, are constantly changing the face of our culture.  It is certain that we hold many traditions, morals, and values as a people; however, Americans naturally love change, shopping, communications, as well as technology.  Many businesses, as well as the employees within a business, have had to alter their ways of doing business because of globalization.  But how does globalization affect our nation in other economic ways, on a grand scale?  How do businesses, as well as managers, have to change due to globalization in the United States in order to stay in business?  Are all businesses affected by globalization?  Which facets of business have to change due to globalization? And, what has happened to a manager’s responsibility within a business since globalization? What are the effects of globalization on competition within and outside of the United States?

            Globalization has been a part of the United States since the birth of our nation. (Boudousquie & Leavell, 2007)  The United States traded tea, cotton, tobacco, and silver with England, traded fur with France, and traded various other commodities such as rum, slaves, sugar, and spices with the Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese just to name a few.  Since colonial times, globalization in the United States has grown expansively throughout the nation and has affected the United States economy in many ways – which includes the way big and small businesses operate.  Globalization started rather small with businesses trading in colonial times, then later on when banks and investors began exchanging money across borders.  (Boudousquie & Leavell, 2007).  Today, American citizens are able to purchase knickknacks and even Japanese stock online from the comfort of their American home.  So, on a grand scale, globalization affects the entire economy, namely in the areas of technology, competition, political policy, culture, and even various other social issues such as immigration and online trade.  

            Competition is a very important aspect of globalization – it is competition which is the precursor to demanding that businesses and managers within businesses adapt their behavior to survive in the face of globalization.  Because globalization enables outsourcing and lower prices on domestic goods through importing, businesses in the United States are facing more financial issues.  For instance, some companies have closed factories in the United States because they have moved to foreign countries where they are able to cut labor costs. It is hard for United States’ businesses to compete with Chinese household commodities pricing when importing.  The main idea here is that importing is cheaper than making the goods in the United States.  When companies outsource for cheap labor, well, this exacerbates the current United States unemployment issues as well as the recession. So what must managers do in the face of globalization?  Should they compete with lower prices thus enhancing a recession? Or should they simply maintain their prices and risk losing their investment in their business?  Or should they move operations overseas (outsource) in order to keep costs low and still stay in business?  This is a true dilemma with companies and there is no real answer to this question.  However, as a business person, I would more than likely move operations overseas until things got better at home unless I could get by with lower prices for an indefinite period of time.  But then again, how will things get better at home with businesses doing this?  It truly is a dilemma and one that is an important question in the United States’ current state of affairs.

            Not all businesses are affected by globalization – yet.  I say yet because as time marches on, businesses who want to stay in business will have to compete with those businesses that are adapting and embracing technology as well as international relations.  As more and more businesses become integrated into the realm of globalization, managers and businesses will have to adapt to this change.  They can either adapt or go out of business; these are the rules of a competitive marketplace.  If companies are not able to compete with other companies, then they will eventually go out of business.  For instance, nowadays business are able to compete globally with the internet.  Many small businesses and some large businesses still do not have a website for their business.  As emerging nations gain broadband access, the market is growing, and fast.  These nations who are experiencing new policies (such as allowing internet sales globally and the use of at-home broadband access) are jumping at entrepreneurial opportunities and thus expanding the global market of trade.  (Renski, 2009).      

         Looking at new nations joining the global market, competitiveness cutting into profits, and overall changes around every corner, how has a manager’s responsibility changed due to globalization? I feel that looking through just the last 50 years, it is very clear to note that a manager’s responsibilities are becoming more diverse and decisions are becoming more and more difficult to make with any amount of certainty.  Managers need to keep one thing in mind, and this is that the global market is a very dynamic place.  For instance, one day steel may be worth $500.00 per pound and the next day it could be worth as little as $50.00 per pound.  Because demand and supply varies greatly just within one nation, it would be wise of the manager to keep in mind that globally this principle will be larger.  It is important to realize that as time goes on, this change will only be greater as more and more nations / people / businesses enter the market.  These “patterns of evolution are dynamic; terrains often undergo significant changes as globalization proceeds.” (Collis & Carr, 2011). 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization

            There is a great debate currently on the advantages and disadvantages of globalization.  This debate is largely political and economic in nature and both sides have very good arguments and points to be made.  However, this paper is not designed to take sides on the issue, but rather to portray an objective point of view which highlights the important points of both the advantages and disadvantages of globalization.

            According to G. L. Breedon, of darkseptemberrain.com, some of the advantages of globalization are:  increased trade between nations, increased liquidity of capital which allows investors to invest in developing nations, businesses / firms / corporations have greater flexibility to operate or trade across borders, globalized mass media integrates world events, the sharing of information is increased, there is a great ease and speed of transporting goods, with globalization there is the chance of democratic ideals that can be spread to developing as well as other non-democratic developed nations, reduction of the likelihood of war breaking out between developed nations (because if they are trading partners, they will have more incentive to remain allies), and increase in policies that can help with environmental protection.

            Some of the disadvantages are: outsourcing – when developed nations send skilled workers to undeveloped countries due to the cut in labor costs and when companies hire other people in different countries who will work for much less than their home country; increased likelihood that if there is a problem with one nation that many nations could be affected (i.e. war, or natural disasters); threat of cultural limitations posed by the media favoring corporation interests; a chance that a nation may create a threat of violence when reacting to the transition of globalization in an attempt to preserve their heritage (culture clash); greater risks of disease being transported across borders;  transfer of capitalism or seeing prosperity in only materialistic terms; international organizations such as the World Trade Organization could infringe on national sovereignty; and decreases in the integrity of the environment of the developing nations as corporations move in and take advantage of lax environmental regulations.

Neutralizing the Disadvantages of Globalization

            As the previous section shows, there are just as many disadvantages to globalization as there are advantages.  How could we, as a global entity, neutralize some of the disadvantages in order to make globalization more of a smooth process for developing as well as developed nations?  For globalization to work well in the future, it will eventually be mandatory to make adjustments in order to fix some of the issues that are already inhibiting the advancement of people. Neutralizing the disadvantages of globalization would help the overall cause and effect of globalization in many ways; it would even perhaps help new nations embrace globalization in the future.  I agree with the statement by Mike Gordon, “"Made in China" is not necessarily a bad thing”. (Gordon, 2007).  I do feel that it is important to embrace developing nations in order for trade, technology, and information sharing to advance in every society simply because the advantages listed above create jobs and can help both developed as well as developing nations if the disadvantages were taken care of properly.  But the overall feel of globalization in America is generally bad.  This is that the people feel anxious, nervous, discontent, and anger regarding globalization due to the disadvantages.  A Professor in the Practice of International Trade says this of the overall American attitude: “globalization is highlighting two alternative visions for America: one vision is of a state with a cohesive set of purposes and interests and a commitment to the economic security of the middle class. A second (newer) vision sees the state as neither promising nor providing a larger sense of purpose.” (Janow, 2003).  This section contains some suggestions to negate a few of the aforementioned disadvantages of globalization. 

            First, outsourcing – anytime I hear about globalization critics have claimed that it is removing United States jobs to foreign countries.  This actually translates into developed nations hiring cheaper labor in other countries to cut costs.  Outsourcing sometimes also includes sending skilled workers to undeveloped nations to train these new, lower paid employees.  So what could we, as a nation, do in order to keep jobs here in the United States?  I feel that perhaps a good idea for this would simply be to not cut the costs and offer prices here that reflect United States wage demand.  I understand this is a hard concept, especially for companies who save millions per year in profit, not to mention that outsourcing creates jobs in other countries.  Therefore, why not simply expand without closing businesses in the United States?  Job loss due to outsourcing is a serious problem of globalization; according to Robert Morley of thetrumpet.com, “In reality, outsourcing makes Americans poorer over time, because America’s wealth and technology slowly migrate to other nations.” (Morley, 2011).   Obviously outsourcing is one of the major disadvantages of globalization that needs attention before it spirals out of control for developed nations.   I do not feel, however, that this is necessarily the case.  I feel that American wealth is simply branching out and the United States should be able to compete in international markets without the nation crumbling to the ground.

            Other disadvantages such as environmental control (air, soil, and water pollution) issues that corporations bring with them to the undeveloped nations, the spread of communicable diseases via the trade of goods, and threats upon national sovereignty can all be very easily neutralized by the addition of new policies and laws to create new margins of trade.  My suggestion would be to eventually create global standards for health and environment procedures in order to create a common understanding of the rules of trade.  For instance, if all countries were no longer allowed to use lead paint, if all countries had to make sure their food processing equipment was cleaned properly, or if all countries had to abide by cape and trade laws, then perhaps there would be much less disease and environmental issues on a global scale.  The culture clash between corporations and the people of the underdeveloped country could easily be averted by simply learning the culture and becoming less ethnocentric and more open minded to new customs, languages, traditions, mores, values, and norms of the particular country.  I understand this could create more costs for the companies who are outsourcing to teach/train their managers on the different cultures, and if policies are in place to protect people and the environment then possibly it could even out the trade playing field a little in terms of cost.  I have learned something new when doing research for this paper and that is globalization is occurring on very uneven terrain.  For instance, developed nations choose to outsource mainly to cut costs by hiring cheap labor, and in some cases the corporations are able to surpass strict laws in the United States by going to another nation with lax health / environmental policies.  And simply because the laws are different in each nation, the playing field is uneven.  There are many trade laws in effect for certain nations, some nations simply do not comply, some nations are not required to comply  I truly believe that if laws were as globalized as trade, that the negative effects of globalization would not be nearly as bad.      

Conclusion

            Globalization is the integration of knowledge, goods, and services with an overall goal to promote wealth and prosperity to every nation it touches.  Globalization encompasses every facet of an economy that is currently, or will be, partaking in trade with a different nation.  Globalization is not a new concept to the United States as we traded in early colonial times with England, Portugal and various other nations for goods; therefore the overall principle is the same, but many details have changed throughout the years since that time.  Because of globalization, managers, corporations, employees, and corporations themselves have had to evolve in numerous ways just to keep up with domestic as well as international competition.  Today, the average consumer is able to purchase spices and herbs from India via the internet instead of going to a local store.  Globalization has created much new work for managers and corporations as well as creating much ease for the average consumer. There are many advantages and disadvantages to globalization; within the past few decades especially, there has been a very heated debate regarding globalization.  This debate is largely due to technological advances and globalization spreading faster than are the policies which are able to control trade.  The major advantage is that globalization can help emerging economies / nations but the downside is that it could also hurt an already developed country if proper precautions are not taken.  I feel that with the correct balance of policy and knowledge that most, if not all, of the disadvantages of globalization could be neutralized in the future.

References

Boudousquie, R., Maniam, B., & Leavell, H.. (2007). Globalization: Its Impact on the United       States             Economy. The Business Review, Cambridge, 9(1), 94-100.  Retrieved October      30, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1416813331).

Breedon, G. L. (n.d.). Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization. Home. Retrieved             November 1, 2011, from http://www.darkseptemberrain.com/ideas/advantages.htm

Collis, D., & Carr, C.. (2011). Should You Have a Global Strategy? MIT Sloan Management        Review, 53(1), 21-24.  Retrieved November 2, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global.       (Document ID: 2478300251).

Gordon, Mike.  (2007, July). The world is flattening at an ever-hastening pace. Aftermarket             Business, 117(7), 62.  Retrieved November 4, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Trade &             Industry. (Document ID: 1310806121).

Janow, Merit E..  (2003). The Rules of the Global Game: A New Look at U.S. International         Policymaking / The Politics of Globalization in the United States. Journal of Policy       Analysis and Management, 22(2), 322-324.  Retrieved November 4, 2011, from       ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 310004431).

Morley, R. (2011, January 18). TheTrumpet.com by the Philadelphia Church of God. The Death   of American Manufacturing. Retrieved November 4, 2011, from http://www.thetrumpet.com/?page=article&id=1955

Renski, H.. (2009). New Firm Entry, Survival, and Growth in the United States: A Comparison   of Urban, Suburban, and Rural Areas. American Planning Association. Journal of the             American Planning Association, 75(1), 60-77.  Retrieved November 2, 2011, from        ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1843935431).

Expectancy Theory: Self-Fulfilling Prophecy & Selective Perception

The Theory

           I became interested in this theory because human perception is as individual as individuals are themselves and with each perception being unique, the outcomes of situations are often a product of subjective inference more so than being a solid reality. The expectancy theory occurs when a person sees only what they expect to see through a variety of different means such as the self-fulfilling prophecy, selective perceptions, projection, and perceptual defense mechanisms; however I have chosen to discuss two of these sub-theories: the self-fulfilling prophecy and selective perception. These expectancy factors deeply influence how we, as humans, perceive situations around us, how we interpret information, and how we see other peoples’ behaviors.

            According to Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart (2008), our expectations influence behaviors and attitudes toward other people, situations, and can even distort reality based on what we expect and choose to see (p. 48).  A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person anticipates a particular behavior from another person and due to that expectation the other person actually behaves in accordance to the expectation. Vroom (1995) reinforces and expands the Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart text, stating: the “expectancy theory asserts that human choice is subjectively rational” (p. xviii).   This means that people expect certain outcomes and they view these expectations with their own perceptions and prejudices; also that these viewpoints are deemed as completely rational by the perceiver, even if the human choice, behavior, or perception is not considered rational by other people.   This subjectivity often leads to a distortion of reality and often alters the behaviors of others, usually unbeknownst to the person who perceives the situation.  Specifically so considering the self-fulfilling prophecy wherein an individual actually makes the outcome of a situation occur simply due to their own expectations and actions.  The selective perception exacerbates the subjectivity of the situation and sets the framework for a self-fulfilling prophecy because an individual is only looking for attributes which he/she expects to find and ignores other attributes that are not expected (Bowditch, Buono, & Stewart, 2008, p. 48).  It is important to note that the expectancy theory can work for or against organizations and individuals; it is exclusively dependent upon the individual who is making choices in situations and ultimately who guides the direction of the organization with their perceptions (John, McKinley, & Moon, 2002).

Application of Theory

Appling the Theory to the Workplace:

            Expectancy theory and the theory sub-sets are used quite frequently in organizations to study human behaviors and the effect of these behaviors on particular organizational settings fundamentally in order to enhance motivation in employees; as Lawler and Suttle (1973) stated, “expectancy theory has evolved in recent years as a basic paradigm for the study of human attitudes and behavior in work and organizational settings” (p. 482).  The self-fulfilling prophecy and selective perception are often prevalent in organizations, specifically to entrepreneurs/small business owners (John, McKinley, & Moon, 2002).  I understand this as true because I owned a small business between the years of 1998 and 2009 and personally enacted expectancy theory through the self-fulfilling prophecy and selective perceptions on employees.  For instance, I hired a friend as an employee and expected that as a friend she would do the duties assigned to her correctly and efficiently.  I did not watch her work and failed to have accurate performance appraisals on her mainly because she was a great friend and I expected she would also be a great worker.  I failed to notice that she was causing issues with other employees, slacking on the job, and ignoring her duties, even in the face of facts from other employees.  I enacted the expectancy theory and especially the selective perception factor in this instance.  Also, at work, I often expected employees to do well when we had large shipments come in.  I expected it so much that I worked overtime; I helped employees meet quotas, and gave employees drive by continuously telling them we could get the job done.  I did not simply think we would get the job done, I knew we would.  However the main reason that we did get the job done was due to my actions and positively reinforcing my employees, as well as motivating them to work harder and longer hours in order to get the job done.  We never missed a deadline using this technique and after each time, I would say, “See? I knew we could do this.”  This is not the only instance where I have enacted the self-fulfilling prophecy with my employees.  In the year 2005, at the request of a female friend employee, I hired a young man to work in the shipping department.  I immediately felt as though, because of his age, that I would have to watch him carefully and stay on him to ensure that he was doing his job correctly.  I felt that he would not do the job I needed him to do and verbally made that clear to him on a few occasions.  I would say things such as, “just leave that for Emily, she has been here longer and will do it right.”   My forecast was that he would not do the job right and that he would quit soon, and again I felt this way simply due to his age.  It was because of my own negative actions and behaviors toward this young man, that I was ultimately correct.  He quit because of my failure to note any of his good qualities, my lack of confidence in him which was ever so evident in my actions, and my bad managerial practices; thus I enacted the expectancy theory and both sub-sets of the theory (a self-fulfilling prophecy and selective perceptions) in this instance.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Application:

            The expectancy theory and the theory sub-sets have great strengths when used positively in organizational settings for the purpose of motivating employees.  Primarily when a manager expects positive outcomes from employees and that manager expresses their expectations and standards in the form of praise, recognition, and rewards.  Using the expectancy theory in this way gives confidence to employees and influences their behaviors in a productive way.   This is evident with the Pygmalion effect (a.k.a., the Rosenthal effect) which is a situation where a manager, educator, or other leader holds positive expectations for their students, employees, or followers.  It is the simple fact that there are positive expectations held that feed the students’, employees’, or followers’ inner beliefs that they can accomplish what the authority figure expects from them.  According to Dr. Ronald Riggio, “Research has clearly shown the power of holding positive expectations of others; we get the outcomes that we expect” (2009).

            Unfortunately, the expectancy theory and the sub-sets can also create a negative effect in organizational settings.  As seen in my personal application of the theories, a poor manager may use the expectancy theory with negative intent and expect bad things from employees, only look for the negative attributes of employees, and enact a self-fulfilling prophecy based on his/her own negative actions and behaviors.  If a manager holds negative expectations, it follows that the Pygmalion effect with also apply with an equal but opposite effect.  Also, it is important to note that organizational decline due to expectancy theory and sub-theories can occur with little or no awareness; “organizational decline through the self-fulfilling prophecy is particularly important because it is a subtle process, and it tends to unfold without the awareness of the managers or external constituencies that are its agents” (John, McKinley, & Moon, 2002).  Therefore, it is imperative that managers are self-aware and make sure they are expecting only positive outcomes with their employees, as to not influence employee behaviors inadvertently negatively.    

References:

Bowditch, J. L., Buono, A. F., & Stewart, M. M. (2008). Chapter 2: Perceptions, Attitudes, and   Individual Differences. A Primer on Organizational Behavior (7th ed., p. 48-49). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

John, C. E., McKinley, W., & Moon, G. (2002). The enactment of organizational decline: The self-fulfilling prophecy.International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 10(1), 55-75. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198626894?accountid=38003

Lawler, E. E., & Suttle, J. l. (1973). Expectancy Theory and Job Behavior. ORGANIZATIONAL   BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE, 9, p. 482-503. Retrieved November 27,   2012, from http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/33872/1/0000133.pdf

Riggio, R. (2009, April 18). Pygmalion Leadership: The Power of Positive Expectations | Psychology Today. Psychology Today: Health, Help, Happiness + Find a Therapist.     Retrieved December 1, 2012, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge- leadership/200904/pygmalion-leadership-the-power-positive-expectations

Vroom, V. H. (1995). Introduction to the Classic Edition. Work and Motivation (p. xviii). San       Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. (Original work published 1964)